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Gwoyeu Romatzyh (pinyin: ''Guóyǔ luómǎzì'', literally "National Language Romanization"),〔. In 1937 the sinologist Trittel coined the German translation "Lateinumschrift der Reichssprache" (DeFrancis(): Ch 4, footnote 4). 〕 abbreviated GR, is a system for writing Mandarin Chinese in the Latin alphabet. The system was conceived by Y. R. Chao (Zhao Yuanren) and developed by a group of linguists including Chao and Lin Yutang from 1925 to 1926. Chao himself later published influential works in linguistics using GR. In addition a small number of other textbooks and dictionaries in GR were published in Hong Kong and overseas from 1942 to 2000. GR is the better known of the two romanization systems which indicate the four tones of Mandarin by varying the spelling of syllables ("tonal spelling").〔The only other romanization system to utilize tonal spelling is Simplified Wade, a modified form of Wade–Giles devised by Swedish linguist Olov Bertil Anderson.〕 These tones are as fundamental to the Chinese language as vowels are to English; their presence lets speakers discriminate between otherwise identical syllables and words.〔"A word pronounced in a wrong tone or inaccurate tone sounds as puzzling as if one said ''bud'' in English, meaning 'not good' or 'the thing one sleeps in.'" Chao(1948):24.〕 Other systems indicate the tones with either diacritics (for example Pinyin: ''āi, ái, ǎi'' and ''ài'') or numbers (Wade–Giles: ''ai1, ai2'', etc.). GR spells the same four tones ''ai'', ''air'', ''ae'' and ''ay''.〔In these examples ''air'' (''ái'') with a rising tone means "cancer", while ''ay'' (''ài'') with a falling tone means "love".〕 These spellings, which follow specific rules, indicate the tones while retaining the pronunciation of the syllable ''ai''. Chao claimed that, because GR embeds the tone of each syllable in its spelling,〔"The common () attitude of treating the tone as an epiphenomenon on top of the solid sounds—consonants and vowels—is to the Chinese mind quite unintelligible..." Chao and Yang(1947):xv.〕 it may help students to master Chinese tones. One study however, found the opposite to be true in a study of GR.〔"The results clearly indicated that GR did not lead to significantly greater accuracy in tonal production. Indeed, the use of GR reflected slightly lower rates of tonal production accuracy for native speakers of both American English and Japanese." McGinnis(1997).〕 GR uses a complicated system of tonal spelling that obscures the basic relationship between spelling and tone; for example, the difference between tones 1 and 2 is variously indicated as ''mha'' vs. ''ma'', ''ching'' vs. ''chyng'', ''chang'' vs. ''charng'', etc. Although tonal spelling has been adopted as part of the normal romanization of a number of Asian languages (e.g. Hmong), all such systems indicate different tones in a simple and consistent fashion by adding letters to the end of a syllable (e.g. in Hmong, ''-b'' indicates high tone, ''-s'' indicates low tone, ''-j'' indicates high-falling tone, etc.). In 1928 China adopted GR as the nation's official romanization system.〔Kratochvíl(1968):169〕 GR was used to indicate pronunciations in dictionaries of the National (Mandarin-based) Language. Its proponents hoped one day to establish it as a writing system for a reformed Chinese script. But despite support from a small number of trained linguists in China and overseas, GR met with public indifference and even hostility due to its complexity.〔For a detailed account of the historical background, see 〕 Another obstacle preventing its widespread adoption was its narrow basis on the Beijing dialect, in a period lacking a strong centralized government to enforce its use. Eventually GR lost ground to Pinyin and other later romanization systems. However, its influence is still evident, as several of the principles introduced by its creators have been used in romanization systems that followed it. Its pattern of tone spelling was retained in the standard spelling of the Chinese province of Shaanxi ''(shǎnxī),'' which cannot be distinguished from Shanxi ''(shānxī)'' when written in pinyin without diacritics. ==History== Tonal spelling, Gwoyeu Romatzyh's most distinctive feature, was first suggested to Y.R. Chao by Lin Yutang.〔"Without disclaiming responsibility, as a very active member of the Committee on Unification, for the merits and defects of the system, I must give credit to my colleague Lin Yutang for the idea of varying the spelling to indicate difference in tone." Chao(1948):11 footnote.〕〔For the historical background see (Chapter 4 of DeFrancis()).〕 By 1922 Chao had already established the main principles of GR.〔DeFrancis(1950): Ch 4, footnotes 43 and 46.〕 The details of the system were developed in 1925–1926 by a group of five linguists, led by Chao and including Lin, under the auspices of the Preparatory Commission for the Unification of the National Language.〔DeFrancis(1950): 74〕 In 1928 GR was officially adopted by the government.〔 GR was intended to be used alongside the existing ''Juhin'' (''Zhùyīn'') phonetic symbols: hence the alternative name for GR, "Second Pattern of the National Alphabet."〔 / ''Gwoin Tzyhmuu Dihell Shyh'' / ''Guóyīn Zìmǔ Dì'èr Shì'': see Simon, W.(1947):Table X, lxxi.〕 Both systems were used to indicate the revised standard of pronunciation in the new official ''Vocabulary of National Pronunciation for Everyday Use'' of 1932.〔 / ''Gwoin Charngyonq Tzyhhuey'' / ''Guóyīn Chángyòng Zìhuì'': see Chao(1948):11.〕 The designers of GR had greater ambitions: their aim was complete reform of the script, using GR as a practical system of writing.〔"While the official position was that it was to be used whenever Chinese was to be spelled in Latin letters, such as in dealing with foreigners, those who devised the system, of whom I was one, had in our minds the design of a practical system of writing." Chao(1968c)〕 In the 1930s two shortlived attempts were made to teach GR to railway workers and peasants in Hénán and Shāndōng provinces.〔DeFrancis(1950): 77–78〕 Support for GR, being confined to a small number of trained linguists and Sinologists, "was distinguished more for its quality than its quantity."〔DeFrancis(1950): 75. The supporters included Qian Xuantong and Luo Changpei in China and Walter Simon in England.〕 During this period GR faced increasing hostility because of the complexity of its tonal spelling. Conversely, Sinologist Bernhard Karlgren criticised GR for its lack of phonetic rigour.〔"() is based on a series of very fatal phonetic lies, and for this reason it will be very difficult to learn, and consequently impractical." Karlgren(1928):20〕 Ultimately, like the rival (toneless) system Latinxua Sinwenz, GR failed to gain widespread support, principally because the "National" language was too narrowly based on Beijing speech:〔DeFrancis(1950):76〕 "a sufficiently precise and strong language norm had not yet become a reality in China".〔Kratochvíl(1968):169.〕 A vestigial use of GR in can be seen in the official spelling of the first syllable of ''Shaanxi'' for Shǎnxī province, to distinguish it from Shānxī province, particularly in foreign-language text where the tone marks are often omitted.〔This usage extends to cyberspace: the URL of the provincial government's official website is http://www.shaanxi.gov.cn .〕 Some prominent Chinese have used GR to transliterate their names: for example the mathematician Shiing-Shen Chern.〔Neither Chao nor Lin, however, followed this practice.〕 The romanization system was changed by the government of the People's Republic of China in 1958 to the current system used now in the country, and other foreign and international institutions, like the United Nations, the Library of Congress, the International Organization for Standardization, and is widely used to teach Mandarin Chinese to foreign students: Hanyu Pinyin. Meanwhile, in the Republic of China (Taiwan), GR survived until the 1970s as a pronunciation aid in monolingual dictionaries such as ''Gwoyeu Tsyrdean (Cídiǎn )'' and ''Tsyrhuey ()'',〔For an account of the phonetization of Chinese in Taiwan, see Chen(1999):189〕 but was officially replaced in 1986 by a modified form known as Mandarin Phonetic Symbols II.〔 This is an online version of Chiung(2001).〕 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Gwoyeu Romatzyh」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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